**Consensus legend:** Medium-High = repeated supportive sport-specific evidence with at least some controlled data; Medium = promising but heterogeneous and not yet standardized; Emerging = early-stage, limited direct replication, or mainly prototype-level evidence.

| Specific Neural Marker / Target | Sensing / Stimulation Modality | Recording Channels / Stimulation Sites | Athletic Benefit | Types of Sport | Example Neurofeedback Task | Scientific Consensus | Associated References |

|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|

| **Sensorimotor Rhythm (SMR)**<br>(12-15 Hz) | **EEG Neurofeedback** | **C3, Cz, C4** (central sensorimotor cortex) | Promotes neural efficiency; improves precision, choice reaction time, and reduces pre-competition somatic anxiety. | Precision sports (golf putting, archery, pistol shooting) | **Computer gamification / monitoring-guided training:** Athletes use brain activity to control a simple game or animation on screen, such as moving objects or clarifying an image. In sport-specific versions, they perform the real skill, such as a golf putt, while receiving auditory feedback when the correct SMR threshold is reached, indicating the optimal moment to execute the action. | **Medium-High** | Cheng et al., 2015<br>Rostami et al., 2012<br>Paul et al., 2011 |

| **Frontal Midline Theta (FMT)**<br>(4-8 Hz) | **EEG Neurofeedback** | **Fz** (frontal midline) | Supports optimal attentional control, flow, and motor execution through **targeted modulation of frontal theta**. Depending on athlete profile and task demands, performance may improve through either increasing or decreasing FMT. | Golf putting, biathlon, basketball free throws, other self-paced precision tasks | **Function-specific auditory feedback:** Athletes adopt their performance stance and receive continuous audio feedback linked to FMT activity. In some protocols, they are trained to **decrease theta** to quiet excessive cognitive control and reduce overthinking before execution. In other protocols, they are trained to **increase theta** to enhance attentional engagement and flow. | **Medium** | Toolis et al., 2023<br>Kao et al., 2014<br>Chuang et al., 2013<br>Ring et al., 2015<br>Chueh et al., 2023 |

| **Theta/Beta Ratio**<br>(down-training Theta, up-training Beta1) | **EEG Neurofeedback** | **C3, C4, Cz** (central regions) | Accelerates simple and complex visual reaction times; improves dynamic balance and decision-making speed. | Combat sports (judo), open-skill sports | **Visual reaction paradigms:** Athletes complete computerised visual reaction tasks, such as those in the Vienna Test System, while receiving real-time feedback like a green/red indicator or a filling bar. The aim is to increase focused alertness (Beta) while suppressing drowsiness or mental drift (Theta) before responding to visual cues. | **Medium** | Krawczyk et al., 2019<br>Gołaś et al., 2020<br>Maszczyk et al., 2020 |

| **Multi-Band Reaction Speed Protocol**<br>(SMR and Beta1 up / Theta and Beta2 down) | **EEG Neurofeedback** | **C3, C4** | Decreases visual reaction times and improves sustained attention and work capacity, helping mitigate mental fatigue in dynamic environments. | AFL, combat sports, dynamic/open-skill sports | **Complex audio-visual puzzles / gamified interfaces:** Athletes engage with a more demanding game-like task, such as placing objects or navigating a driving simulation, which only progresses when they simultaneously raise SMR and Beta1 while suppressing Theta and Beta2. The goal is a relaxed but intensely focused state. | **Medium** | Mikicin et al., 2015<br>Mikicin et al., 2018 |

| **Alpha Band Up-Training and Covert Visuospatial Attention (CVSA)**<br>(8-12 Hz) | **EEG Neurofeedback / VR Integration** | **Parietal / Occipital regions** (general alpha training) | Expands covert visuospatial attention and peripheral field awareness; facilitates cognitive flexibility, spatial awareness, and rapid recovery from stress. | AFL, soccer (team-based / goalkeepers) | **VR / multiple object tracking:** Athletes maintain fixation on a central cross while using peripheral vision to track several moving objects on a screen or in VR. Feedback is linked to alpha activity, training them to widen peripheral awareness without shifting gaze. | **Emerging** | van Boxtel et al., 2024<br>Jeunet et al., 2020 |

| **The COSMI Index**<br>(SMR up, Theta and High-Beta down) | **EEG Neurofeedback** | **C3, Cz, C4** | Improves choice reaction time, cognitive processing speed, and optimal motor preparation through multidimensional oscillatory state modulation. | Racing, eSports, precision sports | **Dynamic moving-bar thresholds:** Athletes monitor a real-time visual bar representing their COSMI score and try to keep it above a threshold using sustained focused attention. The threshold automatically increases when they succeed consistently, progressively increasing task difficulty. | **Emerging** | Chen et al., 2025 |

| **Arousal Regulation / ACC Modulation** | **EEG Neurofeedback** | **High-density array / source-estimated ACC activity** | Keeps the brain in an optimal zone of arousal, preventing hyper-arousal or under-arousal during high-speed sensorimotor tasks. | Racing (motorsport, cycling), flight / aerial navigation | **VR boundary avoidance / threat simulation:** Athletes perform in a stressful VR environment, such as flying through a narrow canyon, while an auditory warning signals excessive ACC activation. They must learn to stay calm and regulated under pressure while still completing the task successfully. | **Emerging** | Faller et al., 2019 |

| **Left Temporal Alpha (T3)**<br>and Temporal-Frontal Coherence | **EEG Neurofeedback** | **T3** (left temporal lobe); coherence between **Fz and T3** | Prevents paralysis by analysis; reduces conscious verbal-analytical processing so motor memory can run automatically. | Archery, marksmanship, golf | **Simulated mental rehearsal:** Athletes sit quietly and vividly recreate the feeling of their best previous performance while watching computer feedback, such as moving horizontal bars. The task trains suppression of excessive verbal-analytical processing before precision motor execution. | **Medium** | Landers et al., 1991<br>Lo et al., 2024/2025<br>Gong et al., 2020 |

| **Oxygenated Hemoglobin (HbO) Up-regulation** | **fNIRS Neurofeedback** | **F3** (left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, dlPFC) | Improves working memory, sustained attention, and inhibitory control; resistant to movement artefacts in dynamic environments. | Dynamic / active sports (table tennis, cycling, climbing) | **Mental strategy / circle expansion:** Athletes wear an fNIRS headset and try to make a circle on screen expand and turn green by increasing prefrontal oxygenation. They do this using internal cognitive strategies such as mental arithmetic, spatial imagery, or active planning. | **Emerging** | Carius et al., 2020<br>Yakovlev et al., 2025 |

**Note on Frontal Midline Theta (FMT):**

FMT should not be treated as a one-size-fits-all target. The literature suggests that both **up-training** and **down-training** can improve performance, depending on athlete expertise, baseline state, and task type. In novices or under-engaged athletes, increasing FMT may support attentional engagement and flow. In highly skilled athletes performing automated, self-paced skills, decreasing FMT may reduce over-monitoring and help prevent choking. For this reason, FMT protocols are best framed as **targeted modulation**, ideally guided by individual calibration during best-performance states.

| Specific Neural Marker / Target | Modality | Typical Brain Region / Positions | Best-Fit Benefit | UX / Product Example | Scientific Consensus | Primary References |

|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|

| **Upper Alpha / Individualized Alpha**<br>(typically upper alpha, individualized around IAF) | **EEG Neurofeedback** | **Pz, Oz, O1, O2**<br>or individualized posterior montage | Improves working memory, visual working memory precision, sensory gating, and calm attentional control. Good fit for study, deep work, and cognitive endurance. | **Focus trainer for knowledge workers or students.** A quiet visual dashboard rewards stable upper-alpha regulation during reading, memory, or planning blocks. | **Medium-High** | Hanslmayr et al., 2005<br>Escolano et al., 2011<br>Yeh et al., 2021<br>Zhou et al., 2024 |

| **Frontal Midline Theta (FMT)**<br>(4–8 Hz) | **EEG Neurofeedback** | **Fz** | Supports executive attention, conflict monitoring, working memory, and top-down control. Strong candidate for focus, meditation support, and cognitive control training. | **“Cognitive control gym” session.** Users perform attention tasks or breath-focused practice while feedback rewards stable FMT regulation. | **Medium** | Wang & Hsieh, 2013<br>Pfeiffer et al., 2024<br>Zhao et al., 2025 |

| **Sensorimotor Rhythm (SMR)**<br>(12–15 Hz) | **EEG Neurofeedback** | **C3, Cz, C4** | Promotes a calm-but-alert state, selective attention, inhibitory control, and low-noise focus. Also plausible for sleep-adjacent regulation and cognitive steadiness. | **“Still but sharp” protocol.** The app rewards users for maintaining motionless, low-noise, high-focus states during focused work or breathing drills. | **Medium for attention**<br>**Low-Medium for sleep** | Bouny et al., 2022<br>Kolken et al., 2023<br>Dousset et al., 2024<br>Schabus et al., 2017 |

| **Theta/Beta Ratio**<br>(Down-training Theta, Up-training Beta1)<br>or **SMR/Theta attention protocols** | **EEG Neurofeedback** | **Cz, C3, C4**<br>sometimes fronto-central montages | Best suited for distractibility, sustained attention, and ADHD-adjacent focus training. More of a “cognitive regulation” protocol than a meditation / wellbeing one. | **Attention regulation training for students or office workers.** Feedback rewards lower drowsy-wandering activity and steadier task engagement. | **Medium**<br>stronger in ADHD than in healthy-user wellness | Aggensteiner et al., 2019<br>Enriquez-Geppert et al., 2024<br>Ölçüoğlu et al., 2025 |

| **Slow Cortical Potentials (SCPs)** | **EEG Neurofeedback** | **Cz** | Trains intentional activation / deactivation over seconds. Useful for attention self-regulation and very relevant in clinical BCI contexts. For general wellbeing, this is more niche and “clinical crossover.” | **Intentional control trainer.** Users learn “engage / release” control states to drive a simple interface, useful for attention regulation or accessibility products. | **Medium-High clinically**<br>**Medium for general wellbeing relevance** | Birbaumer et al., 1999<br>Mayer et al., 2016<br>Aggensteiner et al., 2019 |

| **Frontal Alpha Asymmetry (FAA)** | **EEG Neurofeedback** | **F3, F4**<br>optionally **F7, F8** | Emotion regulation, anxiety reduction, approach-oriented affect, and stress management. Good fit for mood regulation and pre-sleep emotional downshifting. | **Mood regulation app with VR or music.** As the user shifts toward a healthier affective state, the environment becomes warmer, calmer, or more open. | **Medium**<br>promising, but target-modulation evidence is mixed | Mennella et al., 2017<br>Li et al., 2025<br>Akil et al., 2025 |

| **Decoded EEG Emotion-State / Cognitive Reappraisal Signal** | **EEG Decoded Neurofeedback** | **Multichannel EEG**<br>often frontal, temporal, parietal, occipital features | More personalized emotion regulation than single-band training. Promising for guided cognitive reappraisal, resilience, and positive affect training. | **Reappraisal coach.** Users reinterpret emotional stimuli while decoded state feedback helps them learn which mental strategy is actually working. | **Emerging** | Li et al., 2024 |

| **Alpha/Theta Ratio / Alpha-Theta Training** | **EEG Neurofeedback** | **Midline or posterior montage**<br>implementation-dependent | Relaxation, anxiety reduction, inward attention, meditation readiness, and “downshifting” from cognitive overdrive. Better fit for calm, unwinding, and reflective practice than hard-focus productivity. | **Eyes-closed evening protocol.** Ambient audio and minimal visuals reward entry into a relaxed, inwardly attentive state before sleep or meditation. | **Medium-Low to Medium** | Dinc et al., 2025 |

| **Posterior Cingulate Cortex (PCC) / Default Mode Network (DMN) Downregulation** | **fMRI Neurofeedback**<br>or **mindfulness-based NF** | **PCC / DMN**<br>EEG correlates often approximated around **Pz / CPz** but core evidence is imaging-based | Deepens meditation, reduces mind-wandering / self-referential drift, and may improve mindful awareness and emotional wellbeing during practice. | **Meditation precision trainer.** A short imaging-guided or high-precision calibration session teaches users what “less mental chatter” actually feels like. | **Emerging** | Brewer et al., 2014<br>Treves et al., 2024<br>Ganesan et al., 2024 |

| **dlPFC HbO Up-Regulation** | **fNIRS Neurofeedback** | **F3 / left dlPFC**<br>or bilateral prefrontal optodes | Working memory, sustained attention, interference control, and executive function. Strong candidate for “cognitive management” products because fNIRS is interpretable and movement-tolerant. | **Executive function trainer.** Users do planning, n-back, or anti-distraction tasks while the system rewards effective prefrontal recruitment. | **Medium / Emerging** | Yang et al., 2024<br>Zeng et al., 2025 |

| **Decoded Prefrontal fNIRS Patterns**<br>(MVPA of HbO / HbR) | **fNIRS Decoded Neurofeedback** | **Fp1, Fp2, F3, F4** | Improves interference control without exposing users to unwanted conflict or aversive stimuli. Promising for resilience, distraction resistance, and adaptive cognitive control. | **“Silent anti-distraction” trainer.** Instead of giving stressful conflict tasks, the system rewards brain states associated with better control. | **Emerging** | Zeng et al., 2025 |

| **Network-Based fNIRS Small-Worldness / Inhibitory Control** | **fNIRS Neurofeedback** | **Prefrontal network**<br>especially dlPFC connectivity | Novel target for inhibitory control and lower cognitive load during conflict tasks. Interesting for next-gen executive function products. | **High-end cognitive control protocol.** Network feedback rewards efficient prefrontal organization rather than just stronger local activation. | **Emerging** | Zeng et al., 2025 |

| **SMR-Linked Sleep Stability / Spindle-Adjacent Training** | **EEG Neurofeedback** | **C3 / C4 / central sensorimotor sites** | Potentially helps sleep quality, sleep stability, and next-day attention, but the insomnia evidence is mixed and should be presented carefully. | **Sleep preparation protocol.** Short evening sessions aim to stabilize a calm-alert brain state rather than directly “knocking the user out.” | **Mixed** | Schabus et al., 2017<br>Lambert-Beaudet et al., 2021<br>Lechinger et al., 2025 |

| Clinical Indication | Specific Neural Marker / Target | Modality | Wearable Form Factor | Intended Clinical Benefit | Scientific Consensus | Associated References |

|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|

| **PTSD / Complex Trauma** | **Alpha-theta, SMR, or trauma-calibrated EEG self-regulation targets** | **EEG Neurofeedback** | Cap or dry-electrode headset | Reduce PTSD symptoms, hyperarousal, emotional reactivity, and sleep disruption | **Medium** | Voigt et al., 2024<br>Askovic et al., 2023 |

| **Depression / Mood Regulation** | **Frontal Alpha Asymmetry (FAA), alpha-theta, or mood-regulation EEG targets** | **EEG Neurofeedback** | Frontal headset or multi-channel cap | Improve mood regulation, affective flexibility, and depressive symptoms | **Emerging-Medium** | Xia et al., 2024<br>Misaki et al., 2025 |

| **Autism Spectrum Disorder** | **SCPs, beta/theta, mu / alpha targets, or individualized EEG self-regulation** | **EEG Neurofeedback** | Pediatric cap or headset | Support attention, executive function, emotional processing, and some ASD symptom domains | **Emerging-Medium** | 2025 systematic review (Iran J Child Neurol.)<br>Auer et al., 2025<br>Fietz et al., 2025 |

| **ADHD** | **Theta/Beta Ratio, SMR, SCPs** | **EEG Neurofeedback** | Cap or home headset | Intended to improve attention, inhibitory control, and hyperactivity | **Mixed / Low** | Westwood et al., 2025<br>Kee et al., 2025 |

| **Insomnia** | **SMR / alpha sleep-oriented neurofeedback** | **EEG Neurofeedback** | Headband or cap | Intended to improve sleep quality and insomnia severity | **Low / Negative** | Recio-Rodriguez et al., 2024<br>Lu et al., 2025 |

| **Tinnitus** | **Alpha/Delta Ratio neurofeedback** | **EEG Neurofeedback** | Headset | May reduce tinnitus distress and intensity in some patients | **Emerging / Mixed** | Jensen et al., 2023<br>Kleinjung et al., 2023 |

| **MCI / Early Cognitive Decline** | **Alpha, beta, SMR/theta cognitive-training targets** | **EEG Neurofeedback** | Headset or cap | Improve working memory, episodic memory, and attentional control | **Emerging-Medium** | Lin et al., 2024<br>Tazaki et al., 2024 |